Teaching Methods
When asked about teaching methods, most people quickly identify two main
types of instruction—discussion and lecture. In fact, many would
argue that these are the only two methods—with all others merely
being variations on these two basic themes. Debates about which method
is preferable seem to be an annual event in academic circles and frequently
are divided along disciplinary lines. Teachers in the physical sciences
generally lean more heavily toward the lecture format; whereas, those
in the humanities, and in some areas of the social sciences, lean more
toward the discussion format.
The question of lecture versus discussion, however, is actually less
a disciplinary issue than one of purpose. Where the primary mission is
to supply information, the lecture format is generally more effective.
Conversely, when the goals are oriented more toward process and changing
behavior, discussion teaching is typically more effective. In the following
sections, each format is discussed separately, but you should read both
sections as you are preparing to teach. In these addresses, three experienced
teachers offer good advice for teaching in general, whether the assigned
topic is discussion teaching or lecturing, and all three raise some controversial
points that you may want to consider for further discussion with your
peers. All methods of instruction are useful to meet some goal. Therefore,
even if you now think that you will be exclusively using the lecture method,
it may be useful to have some ideas about what can be accomplished via
discussion, and visa versa.
Lecturing
For many beginning teachers thinking about teaching means thinking about
how to execute a captivating lecture. An effective lecture often has a
certain dramatic quality, and many of the elements of public performance
can be exploited during a lecture. In fact, many people find it useful
to draw a comparison between lecturing and acting, but you do not have
to be dramatic to lecture effectively. Certainly, if you have dramatic
talent and skills, you will probably find that these abilities will serve
you well in the classroom. A good lecture should play off the strengths
of the lecturer, and a lack of dramatic talent or experience should not
dissuade you from lecturing.
As you consider each of the next two readings, it will be quite evident
that rather different positions are being taken regarding the use of the
standard lecture. The first reading by Henry Gleitman is one that was
originally presented at CTP's spring 1989 workshop. Here, Gleitman argues
persuasively for what appears to be a fairly traditional lecture format
and provides some suggestions about when and why you might wish to adopt
such an approach. The second reading has been excerpted from the opening
presentation given by Tori Haring-Smith at CTP's winter 1988 workshop,
at which she was asked to discuss practical issues related to lectures.
In her critique of the lecture method, Haring-Smith very nicely exposes
both the strengths and the weaknesses of the traditional lecture, while
offering some practical alternatives to it.
The Center for Teaching and Learning is happy to introduce new
material into this electronic edition of Teaching at Chicago, and
therefore we have added Isaac Abella's 1992 CTP lecture, "On Effective
Lecturing" to this section.
"Lecturing:
Using a Much Maligned Method of Teaching"
"Teaching
by Lecture"
"On
Effective Lecturing"
Teaching by the Lecture Method
Although lecturing is, as Gleitman notes, often dismissed by educators,
it has nonetheless proved to be an extremely durable method of instruction.
Obviously, lecturing does have its advantages. Lectures are, in fact,
an efficient means of conveying a body of information, especially when
there is either too much or too little printed information available.
They can also be a very effective medium for conveying enthusiasm and
excitement about a field, or, as Haring-Smith suggests, lecturing may
simply appeal to many because it seems as familiar as a comfortable old
shoe and thus is a fairly common first choice of beginning teachers.
Although there are many situations in which most of the educational agenda
will be better served by the discussion format of teaching, nearly all
educators find that they must prepare lectures at least occasionally.
Because unplanned lectures are rarely an effective method of instruction,
you may find the following information helpful at some point along the
way. Most of the information that follows is a response to the more common
problems and questions beginning teachers have as they begin trying to
assemble and produce lectures.
How much material should I prepare for an hour lecture?—There
are two important inherent characteristics of the lecture situation that
you should keep in mind when you are preparing for class. The first of
these concerns is the amount of verbal information that can be effectively
squeezed into a specified amount of time. An average out-loud reading
rate is about 140—160 words per minute. In other words, even if you
are able to read at a steady nonstop pace for nearly an hour, the most
you will be able to read is fifteen single-spaced, typewritten pages.
Thus, allowing for the necessary variations in pacing, questions, and
so forth that accompany a well-delivered lecture, a good rule of thumb
is that the information contained in a fifty-minute lecture can be transcribed
into no more than ten single-spaced, typewritten pages.
It is also important when you are preparing a lecture to remember that
people have a limited ability to absorb aural information, tuning in and
out of the lecture every fifteen—twenty minutes. Students cannot
go back and skim through a lecture when they begin to wonder whether they
have missed an important point. And they may well have! Pattern your lectures
so that major items appear no more frequently than every fifteen—twenty
minutes, and limit yourself to no more that four major items within an
hour lecture. The rest of the time should be taken up by the examples,
proofs, and anecdotes that support and reinforce the major point. You
will obviously want to vary how the points are made—for example,
once or twice as an abstract principle, once as a demonstration through
a concrete example, and once as the summary and conclusion. Do not count
on a really crucial point reaching all your students at the same time.
Is it a good idea to read a lecture?—There are some
occasions when it is useful to read a lecture, such as at professional
conferences and when you are addressing a group of colleagues. Despite
appearances to the contrary, however, reading a lecture is not a panacea
for the stage fright that inevitably befalls beginning teachers. Actually,
reading a lecture effectively requires nearly as much skill as, or possibly
more skill than, does a more spontaneous delivery. Lecturing is especially
ill suited to you as a beginning teacher because, when you read a lecture,
it becomes considerably more difficult to assess your students and their
reactions to what you are saying. As a beginning teacher, your ability
to assess and gather information on how students think, and the kinds
of novel reconstructions of information they make, will be extremely important
(See Ferguson and Haring-Smith, for elaborations and examples of this
point). If you routinely read lectures, it will be difficult for you to
acquire this crucial information. Most people actually do best by first
mastering more spontaneous kinds of delivery and only later trying to
master the art of reading from the podium.
When you read a lecture, you have a greater tendency to lose students
simply because they cannot process the information as quickly. If you
must read a lecture, be sure to allow for frequent eye contact, and vary
the tone and tempo of your voice. For example, begin the lecture slowly
to give students a chance to connect with what you are saying. You can
pick up the pace as you move along, but you will want to slow down again
as you are reaching major conclusions. Pace of presentation is an effective
nonverbal way to achieve emphasis. You can also punctuate key points by
using the blackboard. Above all else, remember to be natural!
How can I be sure that I reach my students?—Give your
students an unambiguous framework for listening to the points you want
to make—remember the earlier comments about how students will edit
and interpret what is said. Be sure you give them enough information so
that they don't edit out the most important parts of your message to them.
Many successful teachers will underscore their organization by outlining
their main ideas or topics on the blackboard before they begin a lecture.
Then, of course, there is the age-old adage that sometimes works in written
composition but more often does so in lecturing: "Tell them where you
are going, go there, then tell them where you have been."
A good lecture, like a good essay, not only makes a point; it demonstrates
it. Demonstration can take a far greater range of forms than is possible
in writing, and which forms you use will partially depend on your goals
and the content of your lecture. One fairly common form for demonstrating
a point in a lecture involves audience participation. For example, you
can ask a series of questions to retrieve from the students the more important
details you have presented thus far, write the points on the board, and
then invite the class to draw the appropriate or main point conclusions.
Vary your voice and movements to punctuate your lecture, especially your
major points. Lean into your audience and lower your voice to share a
private point of view on the issue; slam the podium and exclaim when you've
lulled them to sleep and a crucial point has appeared; move around the
room and use your hands. During the lecture, find ways to make sure that
you are not losing the students. The most obvious way is to make eye contact
and watch for the tell-tale signs of incomprehension. Another way to check
on the students and vary the monotony is either to pose specific questions
such as asking students to summarize the key ideas so far and asking for
the definition of a previously studied term or to ask for students' questions.
Evaluate the lecture at the end of the class by having the students write
a response to questions such as, When were you the most confused during
the lecture? Haring-Smith offers other ideas on how to create student
feedback while lecturing. A recent report from Harvard University suggests
a general classroom activity called the two-minute essay, in which students
take a few minutes at the end of each class to respond to the following
two questions: (1) What was the main point made today? and (2) What is
the most significant unanswered question in your mind right now?
Which is the best way to begin a lecture?—At the beginning
of the lecture, gain the students' attention and remind them of the context
of the course. The introduction to a lecture should provide your students
with the conceptual framework of the information that will be shared.
Emphasize the structure of your lecture by providing an outline of the
lecture on the board and make sure the connection between past and future
classes is clear. Two possible opening gambits are, first, to raise a
question that will be answered by the end of the lecture and, second,
to state an historical or current problem that is related to the content
of the lecture.
At the close of the lecture, round off the class period by summarizing
the main points, by restating the premise, or by returning to the opening
question. As was discussed earlier, one example of a truly significant
point will not be enough for undergraduates who are just beginning their
studies in your subject area. What may seem overly repetitious to you
will probably be just right for your students. You should also prepare
the way for the next class period. The end of the lecture is a good place
to emphasize the relation among the ideas you have just presented, those
presented earlier in the course, and those that will be dealt with in
a subsequent lecture.
How can I improve my lectures?—The most obvious way
to improve your lectures is to get objective feedback about what you are
presently doing. For example, you might ask a faculty member whom you
respect to sit in on your class. You can also benefit greatly by asking
a peer or a neutral third party to observe your class and then later talk
to you about it. Alternatively, if you are uncomfortable with either of
these suggestions, you can simply tape your own class session and then
listen to it later. The important thing is to get as much feedback as
possible, ideally from a number of different people.
Which is the best way to prepare a lecture?—There
really are no hard-and-fast rules for producing good lectures. Approaches
to crafting a lecture are as varied as are approaches to writing a paper.
The following list of questions, however, may help you think through and
organize the information you are planning to present.
Questions to Have in Mind: Preparing a Lecture
1. Who are my students? What can I assume with absolute certainty
that they know? What evidence do I have for these assumptions? How can
I discover their assumptions and misconceptions? What kind of misconceptions
might they have about the subject? How can I correct for those misconceptions?
What do I want them to know?
2. What are the major points that I wanted to get across in this lecture?
If my students walk out of the lecture knowing only one new idea, skill,
or concept, what would it be? What concrete examples can I use to emphasize
these points? Can I think of any examples that draw on my students' own
experiences?
3. Do these points fall into any kind of a natural order? Can I use
temporal structure? Can I use some kind of logical structure? How can
I convey that structure to my students?
4. What kinds of connections will my students have to make to previously
covered material? Should I plan to supply those connections, or can I
justify why I want my students to make them independently? When and how
can I help the students connect the information I am providing with knowledge
and skills they already possess?
5. How does this lecture fit into my overall plan for the course and
how does it relate to the other material we have covered?
6. In what ways will my presentation be different as a lecture from
what it would have been as an essay on the topic?
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